Intellectual lineage

The library

The 785 thinkers.

Every figure cited across the PoliticalDNA archetypes — grouped by the family that draws on them and the role they played, never a flat A–Z wall.

The library785 thinkers
Libertarian67
Austrian School EconomicsLate 19th century to present1
Henry Hazlitt1894–1993
Chicago School EconomicsMid-20th century to present1
Walter Williams1936–2020
Classical Liberalism17th-19th century10
David Boaz1953–2024Gottfried DietzeJames Madison1751–1836Robert Nozick1938–2002Thomas Jefferson1743–1826Wilhelm RöpkeWilhelm von HumboldtJohn Locke1632–1704John Stuart Mill1806–1873Thomas Paine1737–1809
Individualist Anarchism19th century to present7
Albert Jay Nock1870–1945Benjamin TuckerKarl HessRose Wilder Lane1886–1968Samuel Edward Konkin IIIVoltairine de CleyreMax Stirner1806–1856
Market Anarchism20th century to present2
Justin RaimondoWilliam Godwin1756–1836
Scottish Enlightenment18th century1
David Hume1711–1776
Social Anarchism19th century to present4
David Graeber1961–2020James C. Scott1936–2024Mikhail Bakunin1814–1876Murray Bookchin1921–2006
Classical Natural LawAncient to 16th century1
Aristotle384–322 BC
Conservatism18th century to present3
Barry Goldwater1909–1998Clyde WilsonFrank Meyer1909–1972
Deontological Ethics18th century to present1
Immanuel Kant1724–1804
Existentialism19th-20th century1
Albert Camus1913–1960
Legal Reform18th-19th century1
Cesare Beccaria1738–1794
Liberal Feminism18th century to present1
Mary Wollstonecraft1759–1797
Liberal Political Thought19th-20th century4
Judith Shklar1928–1992Bertrand Russell1872–1970Charles de Montesquieu1689–1755Isaiah Berlin1909–1997
Mutualism19th century to present1
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon1809–1865
Political Economy18th century to present1
Herbert Spencer1820–1903
Political PhilosophyAncient to present1
Mahatma Gandhi1869–1948
Political TheologyAncient to present2
Martin Luther1483–1546Baruch Spinoza1632–1677
RepublicanismAncient to present2
Patrick Henry1736–1799Hannah Arendt1906–1975
SkepticismAncient to present1
H.L. Mencken1880–1956
Utilitarianism18th-19th century1
Jeremy Bentham1748–1832
Other figures20

Not yet placed in a tradition — reachable here, by role, and by search.

Andrei Sakharov1921–1989Ayn Rand1905–1982Frederick Douglass1818–1895Henry David Thoreau1817–1862Isabel Paterson1886–1961Lysander Spooner1808–1887Michel Foucault1926–1984Milton Friedman1912–2006Sheldon Wolin1922–2015Simone de Beauvoir1908–1986Adam Smith1723–1790Voltaire1694–1778Emma Goldman1869–1940Frédéric Bastiat1801–1850Friedrich Hayek1899–1992Harriet Taylor Mill1807–1858Henry George1839–1897Ludwig von Mises1881–1973Murray Rothbard1926–1995Søren Kierkegaard1813–1855
Conservative85
Catholic Political ThoughtMedieval to present4
Pope John Paul II1920–2005Pope Leo XIII1810–1903Richard John NeuhausG.K. Chesterton1874–1936
Classical Natural LawAncient to 16th century2
Aristotle384–322 BCMarcus Tullius Cicero106–43 BC
Confucianism6th century BC to present1
Confucius551–479 BC
Conservatism18th century to present16
Benjamin Disraeli1804–1881Charles KrauthammerEnoch Powell1912–1998Norman PodhoretzPeter ViereckPhyllis Schlafly1924–2016Richard Weaver1910–1963Robert Taft1889–1953Winston Churchill1874–1965Irving Kristol1920–2009Joseph de Maistre1753–1821William F. Buckley Jr.1925–2008Roger Scruton1944–2020Russell Kirk1918–1994Edmund Burke1729–1797Michael Oakeshott1901–1990
Critique of Modernity19th century to present5
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn1918–2008Fyodor Dostoevsky1821–1881Oswald Spengler1880–1936Thomas Carlyle1795–1881Leo Strauss1899–1973
Distributism20th century to present1
Hilaire Belloc1870–1953
Liberal Political Thought19th-20th century8
Harry Truman1884–1972Hubert HumphreyJohn F. Kennedy1917–1963Robert F. Kennedy Sr.Theodore Roosevelt1858–1919Raymond Aron1905–1983Alexis de Tocqueville1805–1859Charles de Montesquieu1689–1755
Natural LawAncient to present2
Harry JaffaAbraham Lincoln1809–1865
Political RealismRenaissance to present5
Jeane Kirkpatrick1926–2006Niccolò Machiavelli1469–1527Richard Nixon1913–1994Thomas Hobbes1588–1679James Burnham1905–1987
Civil Society18th century to present1
Robert Nisbet
Classical Liberalism17th-19th century3
James Madison1751–1836Thomas Jefferson1743–1826Wilhelm Röpke
PlatonismAncient to present1
Plato428–348 BC
Political Economy18th century to present2
Friedrich List1789–1846Martin Feldstein
Political SociologyLate 19th century to present3
Daniel BellDaniel Patrick MoynihanJames Q. Wilson
Political TheologyAncient to present8
Abraham Kuyper1837–1920Augustine of HippoAD 354–430C.S. Lewis1898–1963Jonathan Sacks1948–2020William Wilberforce1759–1833Eric Voegelin1901–1985Martin Luther1483–1546Reinhold Niebuhr1892–1971
Populism19th century to present1
Rush Limbaugh1951–2021
RepublicanismAncient to present2
Charles de Gaulle1890–1970John C. Calhoun1782–1850
Scottish Enlightenment18th century1
David Hume1711–1776
Other figures19

Not yet placed in a tradition — reachable here, by role, and by search.

Alasdair MacIntyre1929–2025Alexander Hamilton1755–1804Christine de Pizan1364–1430John Calvin1509–1564Martin Heidegger1889–1976Mary Astell1666–1731Milton Friedman1912–2006Thomas Aquinas1225–1274Christopher Lasch1932–1994José Ortega y Gasset1883–1955Marcus AureliusAD 121–180Samuel Huntington1927–2008Martin Luther King Jr.1929–1968Carl Schmitt1888–1985G.W.F. Hegel1770–1831Hugo Grotius1583–1645Max Weber1864–1920Murray Rothbard1926–1995Søren Kierkegaard1813–1855
Progressive81
Anti-Colonial Thought19th century to present2
Edward Said1935–2003Malcolm X1925–1965
Critical Theory20th century2
James Baldwin1924–1987Stuart Hall
Green Political Thought20th century to present1
Rachel Carson1907–1964
Keynesianism20th century to present1
John Maynard Keynes1883–1946
Liberal Feminism18th century to present6
Betty Friedan1921–2006Elizabeth Cady Stanton1815–1902Gloria Steinem1934–2026Shirley Chisholm1924–2005Susan B. Anthony1820–1906Mary Wollstonecraft1759–1797
Marxism19th century to present4
Eric HobsbawmHoward ZinnE.P. Thompson1924–1993Antonio Gramsci1891–1937
PragmatismLate 19th century to present2
Jane Addams1860–1935Richard Rorty1931–2007
Utilitarianism18th-19th century1
Jeremy Bentham1748–1832
Civil Society18th century to present1
Saul Alinsky1909–1972
Classical Liberalism17th-19th century2
Julian SimonThomas Paine1737–1809
Critique of Modernity19th century to present3
Norbert WienerSimone Weil1909–1943George Orwell1903–1950
Enlightenment Philosophy18th century1
Carl Sagan
Existentialism19th-20th century1
Albert Camus1913–1960
Liberal Political Thought19th-20th century6
Franklin D. Roosevelt1882–1945John Rawls1921–2002Theodore Roosevelt1858–1919Tony JudtWoodrow Wilson1856–1924Bertrand Russell1872–1970
Market Anarchism20th century to present1
William Godwin1756–1836
MaterialismAncient to present1
Marvin Minsky
Natural LawAncient to present2
Harriet Tubman1822–1913Abraham Lincoln1809–1865
Political Economy18th century to present3
C.K. PrahaladPeter DruckerWilliam Jennings Bryan1860–1925
Political IdealismAncient to present1
Buckminster Fuller
Political PhilosophyAncient to present1
Mahatma Gandhi1869–1948
Political SociologyLate 19th century to present3
C. Wright MillsDaniel BellWalter Lippmann1889–1974
Political TheologyAncient to present4
César Chávez1927–1993Rosa Parks1913–2005Walter Rauschenbusch1861–1918Reinhold Niebuhr1892–1971
Romantic Political Thought18th-19th century1
Jean-Jacques Rousseau1712–1778
Social Anarchism19th century to present1
Peter Kropotkin1842–1921
Other figures30

Not yet placed in a tradition — reachable here, by role, and by search.

Alexander Hamilton1755–1804Anthony Crosland1918–1977Audre Lorde1934–1992Ernesto Laclau1935–2014Fannie Lou Hamer1917–1977Frances Perkins1880–1965Frederick Douglass1818–1895Harvey Milk1930–1978Henry David Thoreau1817–1862Herbert Croly1869–1930Jean-Paul Sartre1905–1980Jürgen Habermas1929–2026Louis Brandeis1856–1941Michel Foucault1926–1984Simone de Beauvoir1908–1986Sojourner Truth1797–1883W.E.B. Du Bois1868–1963Christopher Lasch1932–1994Dorothy Day1897–1980Eduard Bernstein1850–1932John Kenneth Galbraith1908–2006Michael Harrington1928–1989Thorstein Veblen1857–1929Rosa Luxemburg1871–1919Martin Luther King Jr.1929–1968Voltaire1694–1778Emma Goldman1869–1940Harriet Taylor Mill1807–1858Henry George1839–1897John Dewey1859–1952
Socialist72
Anti-Colonial Thought19th century to present1
Nelson Mandela1918–2013
Democratic Socialism19th century to present15
Bayard Rustin1912–1987Branko HorvatDavid SchweickartDesmond Tutu1931–2021Eugene V. Debs1855–1926Jaroslav VanekJohn RoemerOlof Palme1927–1986Oskar LangeR.H. Tawney1880–1962Robert Owen1771–1858Salvador Allende1908–1973Tony Benn1925–2014William Morris1834–1896William Temple1881–1944
Liberation Theology20th century to present2
Gustavo GutiérrezOscar Romero
Marxism19th century to present8
Eugene GenoveseG.A. CohenMikhail Gorbachev1931–2022E.P. Thompson1924–1993Georges Sorel1847–1922Antonio Gramsci1891–1937Karl Marx1818–1883Friedrich Engels1820–1895
Mutualism19th century to present1
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon1809–1865
Political TheologyAncient to present5
Augustine of HippoAD 354–430Dietrich Bonhoeffer1906–1945Leo Tolstoy1828–1910Walter Rauschenbusch1861–1918Reinhold Niebuhr1892–1971
Social Anarchism19th century to present1
Peter Kropotkin1842–1921
Catholic Political ThoughtMedieval to present3
Peter MaurinPope Francis1936–2025G.K. Chesterton1874–1936
Classical Liberalism17th-19th century2
John Stuart Mill1806–1873Thomas Paine1737–1809
Critical Theory20th century3
Herbert Marcuse1898–1979Paul PicconePaulo Freire1921–1997
Critique of Modernity19th century to present3
Simone Weil1909–1943Thomas Carlyle1795–1881George Orwell1903–1950
Keynesianism20th century to present1
John Maynard Keynes1883–1946
Liberal Political Thought19th-20th century3
Albert Einstein1879–1955Jawaharlal Nehru1889–1964John Rawls1921–2002
Natural LawAncient to present1
Abraham Lincoln1809–1865
Political PhilosophyAncient to present2
Thomas More1478–1535Mahatma Gandhi1869–1948
Romantic Political Thought18th-19th century1
Jean-Jacques Rousseau1712–1778
Zionism19th century to present1
Golda Meir1898–1978
Other figures19

Not yet placed in a tradition — reachable here, by role, and by search.

Aneurin Bevan1897–1960Beatrice Webb1858–1943Charlotte Perkins Gilman1860–1935Edward Bellamy1850–1898Jürgen Habermas1929–2026Max Horkheimer1895–1973Theodor Adorno1903–1969Thomas Aquinas1225–1274W.E.B. Du Bois1868–1963Christopher Lasch1932–1994Dorothy Day1897–1980Eduard Bernstein1850–1932John Kenneth Galbraith1908–2006Michael Harrington1928–1989Thorstein Veblen1857–1929Rosa Luxemburg1871–1919Martin Luther King Jr.1929–1968G.W.F. Hegel1770–1831Henry George1839–1897
Nationalist28
Anti-Colonial Thought19th century to present7
Frantz Fanon1925–1961Gamal Abdel Nasser1918–1970Kwame Nkrumah1909–1972Marcus Garvey1887–1940Patrice Lumumba1925–1961Thomas Sankara1949–1987Toussaint Louverture1743–1803
Fascism20th century to present1
Julius Evola
Political Economy18th century to present2
Dean BakerIndira Gandhi1917–1984
Political SociologyLate 19th century to present1
Roberto Michels1876–1936
Populism19th century to present4
Charlie KirkGeorge Wallace1919–1998Huey Long1893–1935Juan Perón1895–1974
Zionism19th century to present1
Theodor Herzl1860–1904
Critique of Modernity19th century to present2
Oswald Spengler1880–1936George Orwell1903–1950
Marxism19th century to present2
E.P. Thompson1924–1993Georges Sorel1847–1922
Political RealismRenaissance to present2
Otto von Bismarck1815–1898James Burnham1905–1987
RepublicanismAncient to present2
Andrew Jackson1767–1845Giuseppe Mazzini1805–1872
Other figures4

Not yet placed in a tradition — reachable here, by role, and by search.

Gaetano Mosca1858–1941Christopher Lasch1932–1994Samuel Huntington1927–2008Vilfredo Pareto1848–1923
Statist47
Fascism20th century to present5
Adolf Hitler1889–1945Benito Mussolini1883–1945Francisco Franco1892–1975Giovanni GentileJulius Evola
Marxism19th century to present16
Che Guevara1928–1967Deng Xiaoping1904–1997Domenico LosurdoFidel Castro1926–2016György Lukács1885–1971Ho Chi Minh1890–1969Hugo Chávez1954–2013Joseph Stalin1878–1953Leon Trotsky1879–1940Louis AlthusserMao Zedong1893–1976Pol Pot1925–1998Georges Sorel1847–1922Vladimir Lenin1870–1924Antonio Gramsci1891–1937Karl Marx1818–1883
PlatonismAncient to present1
Plato428–348 BC
Chicago School EconomicsMid-20th century to present1
Augusto Pinochet1915–2006
Conservatism18th century to present2
Klemens von Metternich1773–1859Joseph de Maistre1753–1821
Critique of Modernity19th century to present2
Oswald Spengler1880–1936Thomas Carlyle1795–1881
Modern Islamic Political Thought20th century to present1
Sayyid Qutb1906–1966
Moral PhilosophyAncient to present1
Arthur Schopenhauer1788–1860
Political RealismRenaissance to present6
Dominic CummingsLee Kuan YewNapoleon Bonaparte1769–1821Niccolò Machiavelli1469–1527Thomas Hobbes1588–1679James Burnham1905–1987
Political SociologyLate 19th century to present1
Roberto Michels1876–1936
RepublicanismAncient to present1
Maximilien Robespierre1758–1794
Romantic Political Thought18th-19th century1
Jean-Jacques Rousseau1712–1778
Other figures9

Not yet placed in a tradition — reachable here, by role, and by search.

Alexandra Kollontai1872–1952António de Oliveira Salazar1889–1970Clara Zetkin1857–1933Friedrich Nietzsche1844–1900Gaetano Mosca1858–1941Thorstein Veblen1857–1929Vilfredo Pareto1848–1923Carl Schmitt1888–1985G.W.F. Hegel1770–1831
Liberal93
Liberal Political Thought19th-20th century16
B.R. Ambedkar1891–1956Cass SunsteinEleanor Roosevelt1884–1962Franklin D. Roosevelt1882–1945Harry Truman1884–1972John Rawls1921–2002Joseph Nye1937–2025L.T. Hobhouse1864–1929Lyndon B. Johnson1908–1973Ralf DahrendorfWilliam Gladstone1809–1898Raymond Aron1905–1983Karl Popper1902–1994Alexis de Tocqueville1805–1859Charles de Montesquieu1689–1755Isaiah Berlin1909–1997
Political Economy18th century to present7
David Ricardo1772–1823Hyman Minsky1919–1996Joseph Schumpeter1883–1950Ludwig Erhard1897–1977Ronald Coase1910–2013Thomas Malthus1766–1834Herbert Spencer1820–1903
Austrian School EconomicsLate 19th century to present1
Carl Menger1840–1921
British IdealismLate 19th-early 20th century1
T.H. Green1836–1882
Civil Society18th century to present1
Václav Havel1936–2011
Classical Liberalism17th-19th century12
Booker T. Washington1856–1915Calvin Coolidge1872–1933Grover Cleveland1837–1908James Madison1751–1836Margaret Thatcher1925–2013Robert Nozick1938–2002Thomas Jefferson1743–1826Wilhelm RöpkeWilliam Graham Sumner1840–1910John Locke1632–1704John Stuart Mill1806–1873Thomas Paine1737–1809
Classical Natural LawAncient to 16th century1
Marcus Tullius Cicero106–43 BC
Conservatism18th century to present3
Barry Goldwater1909–1998Ronald Reagan1911–2004Michael Oakeshott1901–1990
Deontological Ethics18th century to present1
Immanuel Kant1724–1804
Enlightenment Philosophy18th century2
Benjamin Franklin1706–1790Marquis de Condorcet1743–1794
Keynesianism20th century to present1
John Maynard Keynes1883–1946
Liberal Feminism18th century to present1
Mary Wollstonecraft1759–1797
Political RealismRenaissance to present1
Thomas Hobbes1588–1679
Political SociologyLate 19th century to present1
Walter Lippmann1889–1974
Political TheologyAncient to present1
Baruch Spinoza1632–1677
PragmatismLate 19th century to present2
Charles Sanders Peirce1839–1914Richard Rorty1931–2007
Public ChoiceMid-20th century to present1
James M. Buchanan1919–2013
RepublicanismAncient to present4
George Washington1732–1799John Adams1735–1826Simón Bolívar1783–1830Hannah Arendt1906–1975
Romantic Political Thought18th-19th century1
Jean-Jacques Rousseau1712–1778
Scottish Enlightenment18th century1
David Hume1711–1776
Utilitarianism18th-19th century1
Jeremy Bentham1748–1832
Other figures33

Not yet placed in a tradition — reachable here, by role, and by search.

Ayn Rand1905–1982Frederick Douglass1818–1895George Stigler1911–1991Gordon Tullock1922–2014Jean-Baptiste Say1767–1832Joseph Raz1939–2022Jürgen Habermas1929–2026Lysander Spooner1808–1887Mancur Olson1932–1998Michael Polanyi1891–1976Michel Foucault1926–1984Milton Friedman1912–2006Olympe de Gouges1748–1793Ronald Dworkin1931–2013Simone de Beauvoir1908–1986W.E.B. Du Bois1868–1963William Beveridge1879–1963Eduard Bernstein1850–1932John Kenneth Galbraith1908–2006Michael Harrington1928–1989Adam Smith1723–1790Voltaire1694–1778Frédéric Bastiat1801–1850Friedrich Hayek1899–1992G.W.F. Hegel1770–1831Harriet Taylor Mill1807–1858Henry George1839–1897Hugo Grotius1583–1645John Dewey1859–1952Ludwig von Mises1881–1973Max Weber1864–1920Murray Rothbard1926–1995James Mill1773–1836
Centrist60
Existentialism19th-20th century1
Albert Camus1913–1960
Liberal Political Thought19th-20th century12
Amy GutmannArthur Schlesinger Jr.Joe LiebermanJohn F. Kennedy1917–1963Judith Shklar1928–1992Stephen BreyerRaymond Aron1905–1983Bertrand Russell1872–1970Karl Popper1902–1994Alexis de Tocqueville1805–1859Charles de Montesquieu1689–1755Isaiah Berlin1909–1997
PragmatismLate 19th century to present2
Charles Sanders Peirce1839–1914Richard Rorty1931–2007
Conservatism18th century to present1
Michael Oakeshott1901–1990
Critique of Modernity19th century to present3
Czesław MiłoszGeorge Orwell1903–1950Leo Strauss1899–1973
Deontological Ethics18th century to present1
Immanuel Kant1724–1804
History of Ideas20th century to present1
Leszek Kołakowski
Individualist Anarchism19th century to present1
Max Stirner1806–1856
Marxism19th century to present1
Antonio Gramsci1891–1937
Moral PhilosophyAncient to present1
Arthur Schopenhauer1788–1860
PlatonismAncient to present1
Plato428–348 BC
Political Economy18th century to present2
Daniel KahnemanElinor Ostrom1933–2012
Political RealismRenaissance to present1
Niccolò Machiavelli1469–1527
Political SociologyLate 19th century to present4
Daniel BellDaniel Patrick MoynihanRoberto Michels1876–1936Walter Lippmann1889–1974
Political TheologyAncient to present2
Reinhold Niebuhr1892–1971Baruch Spinoza1632–1677
Rationalism17th-18th century1
René Descartes1596–1650
RepublicanismAncient to present2
Henry Clay1777–1852Hannah Arendt1906–1975
Scottish Enlightenment18th century1
David Hume1711–1776
SkepticismAncient to present1
Christopher Hitchens1949–2011
Social Anarchism19th century to present1
Peter Kropotkin1842–1921
Other figures20

Not yet placed in a tradition — reachable here, by role, and by search.

Friedrich Nietzsche1844–1900Hans Morgenthau1904–1980Henry David Thoreau1817–1862Jane Jacobs1916–2006Jürgen Habermas1929–2026Michel Foucault1926–1984Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.1841–1935Ralph Waldo Emerson1803–1882Simone de Beauvoir1908–1986Gaetano Mosca1858–1941José Ortega y Gasset1883–1955Marcus AureliusAD 121–180Samuel Huntington1927–2008Thorstein Veblen1857–1929Vilfredo Pareto1848–1923Voltaire1694–1778Emma Goldman1869–1940John Dewey1859–1952Max Weber1864–1920Søren Kierkegaard1813–1855
Unaligned152

In the library but not yet cited by a PoliticalDNA archetype.

Black Political Thought19th century to present1
Jesse Jackson1941–2026
Comparative Politics18th century to present1
Ivan Krastev
Conservatism18th century to present4
Jefferson Davis1808–1889Paul GottfriedRyszard LegutkoSamuel Francis
Critical Theory20th century2
bell hooks1952–2021Mark Fisher1968–2017
Critique of Modernity19th century to present1
Aldous Huxley1894–1963
Democratic Socialism19th century to present1
Clement Attlee1883–1967
Enlightenment Philosophy18th century2
Catherine the Great1729–1796Frederick the Great1712–1786
Greek Philosophy6th to 4th century BC1
Socrates470–399 BC
Green Political Thought20th century to present1
E.F. Schumacher1911–1977
Liberal Feminism18th century to present1
Ida B. Wells1862–1931
Liberal Political Thought19th-20th century1
Dwight D. Eisenhower1890–1969
Modern Islamic Political Thought20th century to present1
Ayatollah Khomeini1902–1989
Philosophy of History18th century to present1
Ibn Khaldun1332–1406
Political Economy18th century to present2
Karl Polanyi1886–1964Paul Collier
Political RealismRenaissance to present2
George Kennan1904–2005Henry Kissinger1923–2023
Political SociologyLate 19th century to present1
Frank Salter
Political TheologyAncient to present1
Oliver Cromwell1599–1658
RepublicanismAncient to present1
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk1881–1938
Scholasticism12th-15th century3
Averroes1126–1198AvicennaAD 980–1037Maimonides1138–1204
Other figures124

Not yet placed in a tradition — reachable here, by role, and by search.

Adam Ferguson1723–1816Adam Müller1779–1829Al-FarabiAD 872–950Al-Ghazali1058–1111Alcide De Gasperi1881–1954Alexander Rüstow1885–1963Algernon Sidney1623–1683Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot1727–1781Anselm of Canterbury1033–1109Auguste Comte1798–1857Baron d'Holbach1723–1789Bartolus of Saxoferrato1313–1357Benjamin Constant1767–1830Blaise Pascal1623–1662Charles Fourier1772–1837Charles Maurras1868–1952Christian Wolff1679–1754Claude Adrien Helvétius1715–1771Cleopatra69–30 BCDante Alighieri1265–1321Denis Diderot1713–1784Desiderius Erasmus1466–1536Dugald Stewart1753–1828Elizabeth I1533–1603Émile Durkheim1858–1917EpictetusAD 50–135Epicurus341–270 BCErnest Renan1823–1892Étienne de La Boétie1530–1563Ferdinand Lassalle1825–1864Francesco Guicciardini1483–1540Francis Bacon1561–1626Francis Hutcheson1694–1746Francisco de Vitoria1483–1546Francisco Suárez1548–1617François Quesnay1694–1774François-René de Chateaubriand1768–1848Friedrich Carl von Savigny1779–1861Friedrich Schelling1775–1854Friedrich Schiller1759–1805Friedrich Schlegel1772–1829Friedrich Schleiermacher1768–1834Germaine de Staël1766–1817Gerrard Winstanley1609–1676Giambattista Vico1668–1744Giles of Rome1243–1316Gilles Deleuze1925–1995Giovanni Pico della Mirandola1463–1494Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz1646–1716Gotthold Ephraim Lessing1729–1781H. L. A. Hart1907–1992Hans Kelsen1881–1973Heinrich von Treitschke1834–1896Henri de Saint-Simon1760–1825Henry Home, Lord Kames1696–1782Henry Sidgwick1838–1900Huldrych Zwingli1484–1531Iris Marion Young1949–2006Jacques Derrida1930–2004Jacques Maritain1882–1973James Connolly1868–1916James Fitzjames Stephen1829–1894James Harrington1611–1677Jean Baudrillard1929–2007Jean Bodin1530–1596Jean Gerson1363–1429Jean le Rond d'Alembert1717–1783Jean-Baptiste Colbert1619–1683Jean-François Lyotard1924–1998Johann Gottfried Herder1744–1803Johann Gottlieb Fichte1762–1814Johannes Althusius1563–1638John Austin1790–1859John Bright1811–1889John Duns Scotus1266–1308John Lilburne1614–1657John Millar1735–1801John of Salisbury1120–1180Josiah Warren1798–1874Julien Offray de La Mettrie1709–1751Karl Kautsky1854–1938Kate Millett1934–2017Konrad Adenauer1876–1967Leonardo Bruni1370–1444Lord Acton1834–1902Lorenzo Valla1407–1457Louis Blanc1811–1882Louis de Bonald1754–1840Lucretius99–55 BCLudwig Feuerbach1804–1872Marsilio Ficino1433–1499Marsilius of Padua1275–1342Mencius372–289 BCMichel de Montaigne1533–1592Nicholas of Cusa1401–1464Nicolas Malebranche1638–1715Novalis1772–1801Peter Abelard1079–1142Petrarch1304–1374Pierre Bayle1647–1706PlotinusAD 204–270Polybius200–118 BCRalph Cudworth1617–1688Richard Cobden1804–1865Richard Hooker1554–1600Robert Bellarmine1542–1621Robert Filmer1588–1653Samuel Pufendorf1632–1694Samuel Rutherford1600–1661Samuel Taylor Coleridge1772–1834Seneca4 BC–AD 65Sextus EmpiricusAD 160–210Shulamith Firestone1945–2012Sidney Webb1859–1947Thomas Mun1571–1641Thomas Reid1710–1796Thucydides460–400 BCWalter Bagehot1826–1877Walter Eucken1891–1950William of Ockham1287–1347William Paley1743–1805William Robertson1721–1793Xenophon430–354 BCXunzi310–235 BC
Voices today285 living

The living writers, politicians, and public figures the archetypes draw on today — grouped by the family whose archetypes cite them. Association, not endorsement: a figure appears wherever the archetypes reference them, and is reachable by role and search like everyone else.

Libertarian38
Alex NowrastehBrink LindseyBryan Caplan1971–Charles JohnsonCharles Murray1943–Conor Friedersdorf1980–Dave Smith1983–David Friedman1945–Deirdre McCloskey1942–Gary Chartier1966–Glenn Greenwald1967–Hans-Hermann Hoppe1949–Jacob Sullum1965–Jason Brennan1979–Javier Milei1970–Jeff DeistJohn Mackey1953–Keith KnightKevin Carson1963–Kmele Foster1980–Lew Rockwell1944–Loren LomaskyMatt ZwolinskiMichael Malice1976–Noam Chomsky1928–Rand Paul1963–Robby Soave1988–Roderick Long1964–Ron Paul1935–Saifedean Ammous1980–Sarah Haider1991–Scott Horton1976–Sheldon Richman1949–Thomas Massie1971–Tom Woods1972–Tyler Cowen1962–Virginia Postrel1960–Will Wilkinson1973–
Conservative58
Adrian Vermeule1968–Albert Mohler1959–Anne Applebaum1964–Ayaan Hirsi Ali1969–Ben Shapiro1984–Bill Clinton1946–Bill Kauffman1959–Bill Kristol1952–Blake Masters1986–Charles Taylor1931–Christopher Rufo1984–David Frum1960–David Sacks1972–Francis Fukuyama1952–Giorgia Meloni1977–Henry OlsenJ.D. Vance1984–Joe Manchin1947–John Bolton1948–John Fetterman1969–Jonah Goldberg1969–Jonathan Haidt1963–Jordan Peterson1962–Josh Hawley1979–Josh Shapiro1973–Julius Krein1986–Larry Hogan1956–Laura Ingraham1963–Lech Wałęsa1943–Liz Cheney1966–Marco Rubio1971–Mary HarringtonMatthew Crawford1965–Max Boot1969–Michael Brendan DoughertyMichael Sandel1953–Mitt Romney1947–Oren Cass1983–Patrick Deneen1964–Phillip Blond1966–Ramesh Ponnuru1974–Reihan Salam1979–Robert George1955–Robert Kagan1958–Rod Dreher1967–Ron DeSantis1978–Ross Douthat1979–Rusty Reno1959–Ryan T. Anderson1981–Sherrod Brown1952–Sohrab Ahmari1985–Thomas Sowell1930–Tim Walz1964–Timothy Dolan1950–Viktor Orbán1963–Vivek Ramaswamy1985–Yoram Hazony1964–Yuval Levin1977–
Progressive52
Al Gore1948–Amartya Sen1933–Angela Nagle1984–Batya Ungar-Sargon1981–Ben Burgis1980–Bill McKibben1960–Chantal Mouffe1943–David Goodhart1956–Derek Thompson1986–Eliezer Yudkowsky1979–Elizabeth Warren1949–Ezra Klein1984–George Soros1930–Greta Thunberg2003–Hillary Clinton1947–Ibram X. Kendi1982–Jason CrawfordJean-Claude Michéa1950–Joseph Stiglitz1943–Judith Butler1956–Kate Raworth1970–Kimberlé Crenshaw1959–Klaus Schwab1938–Larry Fink1952–Laurene Powell Jobs1963–Marc Benioff1964–Mariana Mazzucato1968–Martha Nussbaum1947–Matt Ridley1958–Matt Yglesias1981–Maurice Glasman1961–Max More1964–Mehdi Hasan1979–Melinda French Gates1964–Michael Lind1962–Naomi Klein1970–Nick Bostrom1973–Noah SmithPatrick Collison1988–Paul Ehrlich1932–Peter Singer1946–Pramila Jayapal1965–Ralph Nader1934–Rebecca Henderson1960–Reed Hastings1960–Robert Reich1946–Sam Altman1985–Sherrod Brown1952–Steven Pinker1954–Ta-Nehisi Coates1975–Thomas Frank1965–Thomas Piketty1971–
Socialist30
Adolph Reed Jr.1947–Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez1989–Amartya Sen1933–Amber A'Lee FrostAngela Davis1944–Bernie Sanders1941–Bhaskar Sunkara1989–Chris Hedges1956–Cornel West1953–Gar Alperovitz1936–Hasan Piker1991–Jeremy Corbyn1949–Jim Wallis1948–Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva1945–Matt Bruenig1988–Michael Tracey1988–Michael Walzer1935–Nancy Fraser1947–Natalie Wynn1988–Nathan Schneider1984–Paul EmberyRev. William Barber II1963–Richard Wolff1942–Shane Claiborne1975–Sister Simone Campbell1945–Slavoj Žižek1949–Stephanie Kelton1969–Wendy Brown1955–Yanis Varoufakis1961–Zohran Mamdani1991–
Nationalist25
Batya Ungar-Sargon1981–Christopher Caldwell1962–David Goodhart1956–Donald Trump1946–Geert Wilders1963–Giorgia Meloni1977–Ha-Joon Chang1963–Jair Bolsonaro1955–John Judis1941–Krystal Ball1981–Marine Le Pen1968–Michael Anton1969–Michael Lind1962–Michel Houellebecq1956–Nick Fuentes1998–Nigel Farage1964–Patrick Buchanan1938–Recep Tayyip Erdoğan1954–Robert Kuttner1943–Sahra Wagenknecht1969–Stephen Miller1985–Steve Bannon1953–Tucker Carlson1969–Viktor Orbán1963–Wolfgang Streeck1946–
Statist21
Aleksandr Dugin1962–Alex Karp1967–Bronze Age Pervert1980–Caleb Maupin1988–Curtis Yarvin1973–Elon Musk1971–Eric Schmidt1955–Infrared (Haz)1996–Jack Posobiec1984–Jackson Hinkle1999–Larry Ellison1944–Marc Andreessen1971–Nayib Bukele1981–Nick Land1962–Palmer Luckey1992–Paul Cockshott1952–Peter Thiel1967–Sebastian Gorka1970–Vladimir Putin1952–Wang Huning1955–Xi Jinping1953–
Liberal35
Adam Michnik1946–Amartya Sen1933–Anne-Marie Slaughter1958–Barack Obama1961–Charles Koch1935–Charles Taylor1931–Christine Lagarde1956–Daron Acemoglu1967–Destiny (Steven Bonnell)1988–E.J. Dionne1952–Emmanuel Macron1977–Ezra Klein1984–Francis Fukuyama1952–Jagdish Bhagwati1934–Janet Yellen1946–Joe Lonsdale1982–Johan Norberg1973–Kwame Anthony Appiah1954–Larry Summers1954–Martha Nussbaum1947–Matt Yglesias1981–Megan McArdle1973–Michael Sandel1953–Niall Ferguson1964–Paul Krugman1953–Pete Buttigieg1982–Philip Pettit1945–Quentin Skinner1940–Shoshana Zuboff1951–Thomas Friedman1953–Thomas Sowell1930–Timothy Snyder1969–Tony Blair1953–Yascha Mounk1982–Yuval Noah Harari1976–
Centrist36
Amy Klobuchar1960–Andrew Sullivan1963–Andrew Yang1975–Angela Merkel1954–Angus King1944–Bari Weiss1984–Bill Clinton1946–Charles Taylor1931–Danielle Allen1971–Francis Fukuyama1952–Gavin Newsom1967–Glenn Loury1948–Gretchen Whitmer1971–Hakeem Jeffries1970–Joe Biden1942–Joe Rogan1967–John Mearsheimer1947–Jonathan Haidt1963–Josh Shapiro1973–Lisa Murkowski1957–Martha Nussbaum1947–Matt Taibbi1970–Michael Bloomberg1942–Michael Lind1962–Michael Sandel1953–Michael Shellenberger1971–Michael Walzer1935–Nancy Pelosi1940–Nassim Taleb1960–Philip Tetlock1954–Robert Putnam1941–Robin Hanson1959–Sam Harris1967–Scott Alexander1984–Thomas Sowell1930–Volodymyr Zelensky1978–
Unaligned15
Alain de Benoist1943–Alexander Soros1985–Anna Khachiyan1985–Catharine MacKinnon1946–Dasha Nekrasova1991–David French1969–Eric Kaufmann1970–Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak1942–George Will1941–Homi K. Bhabha1949–Matteo Salvini1973–Narendra Modi1950–Rodrigo Duterte1945–Wendell Berry1934–Will Kymlicka1962–
Browse all 785 thinkers · 92 traditions A–Z
Infrared (Haz)1996–Peter Abelard1079–1142Daron Acemoglu1967–Lord Acton1834–1902John Adams1735–1826Jane Addams1860–1935Konrad Adenauer1876–1967Theodor Adorno1903–1969Sohrab Ahmari1985–Jean le Rond d'Alembert1717–1783Scott Alexander1984–Saul Alinsky1909–1972Danielle Allen1971–Salvador Allende1908–1973Gar Alperovitz1936–Johannes Althusius1563–1638Louis AlthusserSam Altman1985–B.R. Ambedkar1891–1956Saifedean Ammous1980–Ryan T. Anderson1981–Marc Andreessen1971–Anselm of Canterbury1033–1109Susan B. Anthony1820–1906Michael Anton1969–Kwame Anthony Appiah1954–Anne Applebaum1964–Thomas Aquinas1225–1274Hannah Arendt1906–1975Aristotle384–322 BCRaymond Aron1905–1983Mary Astell1666–1731Mustafa Kemal Atatürk1881–1938Clement Attlee1883–1967Augustine of HippoAD 354–430John Austin1790–1859Averroes1126–1198AvicennaAD 980–1037Francis Bacon1561–1626Walter Bagehot1826–1877Dean BakerMikhail Bakunin1814–1876James Baldwin1924–1987Krystal Ball1981–Steve Bannon1953–Rev. William Barber II1963–Bartolus of Saxoferrato1313–1357Frédéric Bastiat1801–1850Jean Baudrillard1929–2007Pierre Bayle1647–1706Simone de Beauvoir1908–1986Cesare Beccaria1738–1794Daniel BellEdward Bellamy1850–1898Robert Bellarmine1542–1621Hilaire Belloc1870–1953Marc Benioff1964–Tony Benn1925–2014Jeremy Bentham1748–1832Isaiah Berlin1909–1997Eduard Bernstein1850–1932Wendell Berry1934–Aneurin Bevan1897–1960William Beveridge1879–1963Homi K. Bhabha1949–Jagdish Bhagwati1934–Joe Biden1942–Otto von Bismarck1815–1898Tony Blair1953–Louis Blanc1811–1882Phillip Blond1966–Michael Bloomberg1942–David Boaz1953–2024Jean Bodin1530–1596Simón Bolívar1783–1830Jair Bolsonaro1955–John Bolton1948–Louis de Bonald1754–1840Napoleon Bonaparte1769–1821Dietrich Bonhoeffer1906–1945Destiny (Steven Bonnell)1988–Murray Bookchin1921–2006Max Boot1969–Nick Bostrom1973–Louis Brandeis1856–1941Jason Brennan1979–Stephen BreyerJohn Bright1811–1889Sherrod Brown1952–Wendy Brown1955–Matt Bruenig1988–Leonardo Bruni1370–1444William Jennings Bryan1860–1925James M. Buchanan1919–2013Patrick Buchanan1938–William F. Buckley Jr.1925–2008Nayib Bukele1981–Ben Burgis1980–Edmund Burke1729–1797James Burnham1905–1987Judith Butler1956–Pete Buttigieg1982–Christopher Caldwell1962–John C. Calhoun1782–1850John Calvin1509–1564Sister Simone Campbell1945–Albert Camus1913–1960Bryan Caplan1971–Tucker Carlson1969–Thomas Carlyle1795–1881Kevin Carson1963–Rachel Carson1907–1964Oren Cass1983–Fidel Castro1926–2016Ha-Joon Chang1963–Gary Chartier1966–François-René de Chateaubriand1768–1848César Chávez1927–1993Hugo Chávez1954–2013Liz Cheney1966–G.K. Chesterton1874–1936Shirley Chisholm1924–2005Noam Chomsky1928–Winston Churchill1874–1965Marcus Tullius Cicero106–43 BCShane Claiborne1975–Henry Clay1777–1852Cleopatra69–30 BCGrover Cleveland1837–1908Voltairine de CleyreBill Clinton1946–Hillary Clinton1947–Ronald Coase1910–2013Ta-Nehisi Coates1975–Richard Cobden1804–1865Paul Cockshott1952–G.A. CohenJean-Baptiste Colbert1619–1683Samuel Taylor Coleridge1772–1834Paul CollierPatrick Collison1988–Auguste Comte1798–1857Marquis de Condorcet1743–1794Confucius551–479 BCJames Connolly1868–1916Benjamin Constant1767–1830Calvin Coolidge1872–1933Jeremy Corbyn1949–Tyler Cowen1962–Jason CrawfordMatthew Crawford1965–Kimberlé Crenshaw1959–Herbert Croly1869–1930Oliver Cromwell1599–1658Anthony Crosland1918–1977Ralph Cudworth1617–1688Dominic CummingsRalf DahrendorfDante Alighieri1265–1321Angela Davis1944–Jefferson Davis1808–1889Dorothy Day1897–1980Alain de Benoist1943–Alcide De Gasperi1881–1954Eugene V. Debs1855–1926Jeff DeistGilles Deleuze1925–1995Patrick Deneen1964–Deng Xiaoping1904–1997Jacques Derrida1930–2004Ron DeSantis1978–René Descartes1596–1650John Dewey1859–1952Denis Diderot1713–1784Gottfried DietzeE.J. Dionne1952–Benjamin Disraeli1804–1881Timothy Dolan1950–Fyodor Dostoevsky1821–1881Michael Brendan DoughertyFrederick Douglass1818–1895Ross Douthat1979–Rod Dreher1967–Peter DruckerW.E.B. Du Bois1868–1963Aleksandr Dugin1962–John Duns Scotus1266–1308Émile Durkheim1858–1917Rodrigo Duterte1945–Ronald Dworkin1931–2013Paul Ehrlich1932–Albert Einstein1879–1955Dwight D. Eisenhower1890–1969Larry Ellison1944–Paul EmberyRalph Waldo Emerson1803–1882Friedrich Engels1820–1895EpictetusAD 50–135Epicurus341–270 BCDesiderius Erasmus1466–1536Recep Tayyip Erdoğan1954–Ludwig Erhard1897–1977Walter Eucken1891–1950Julius EvolaFrantz Fanon1925–1961Al-FarabiAD 872–950Nigel Farage1964–Martin FeldsteinAdam Ferguson1723–1816Niall Ferguson1964–John Fetterman1969–Ludwig Feuerbach1804–1872Johann Gottlieb Fichte1762–1814Marsilio Ficino1433–1499Robert Filmer1588–1653Larry Fink1952–Shulamith Firestone1945–2012Mark Fisher1968–2017Kmele Foster1980–Michel Foucault1926–1984Charles Fourier1772–1837Pope Francis1936–2025Samuel FrancisFrancisco Franco1892–1975Thomas Frank1965–Benjamin Franklin1706–1790Nancy Fraser1947–Paulo Freire1921–1997David French1969–Betty Friedan1921–2006Conor Friedersdorf1980–David Friedman1945–Milton Friedman1912–2006Thomas Friedman1953–Amber A'Lee FrostDavid Frum1960–Nick Fuentes1998–Francis Fukuyama1952–Buckminster FullerJohn Kenneth Galbraith1908–2006Indira Gandhi1917–1984Mahatma Gandhi1869–1948Marcus Garvey1887–1940Melinda French Gates1964–Charles de Gaulle1890–1970Eugene GenoveseGiovanni GentileHenry George1839–1897Robert George1955–Jean Gerson1363–1429Al-Ghazali1058–1111Giles of Rome1243–1316Charlotte Perkins Gilman1860–1935William Gladstone1809–1898Maurice Glasman1961–William Godwin1756–1836Jonah Goldberg1969–Emma Goldman1869–1940Barry Goldwater1909–1998David Goodhart1956–Mikhail Gorbachev1931–2022Al Gore1948–Sebastian Gorka1970–Paul GottfriedOlympe de Gouges1748–1793David Graeber1961–2020Antonio Gramsci1891–1937Catherine the Great1729–1796Frederick the Great1712–1786T.H. Green1836–1882Glenn Greenwald1967–Hugo Grotius1583–1645Che Guevara1928–1967Francesco Guicciardini1483–1540Gustavo GutiérrezAmy GutmannJürgen Habermas1929–2026Sarah Haider1991–Jonathan Haidt1963–Stuart HallFannie Lou Hamer1917–1977Alexander Hamilton1755–1804Robin Hanson1959–Yuval Noah Harari1976–James Harrington1611–1677Mary HarringtonMichael Harrington1928–1989Sam Harris1967–H. L. A. Hart1907–1992Mehdi Hasan1979–Reed Hastings1960–Václav Havel1936–2011Josh Hawley1979–Friedrich Hayek1899–1992Henry Hazlitt1894–1993Yoram Hazony1964–Chris Hedges1956–G.W.F. Hegel1770–1831Martin Heidegger1889–1976Claude Adrien Helvétius1715–1771Rebecca Henderson1960–Patrick Henry1736–1799Johann Gottfried Herder1744–1803Theodor Herzl1860–1904Karl HessJackson Hinkle1999–Ayaan Hirsi Ali1969–Christopher Hitchens1949–2011Adolf Hitler1889–1945Thomas Hobbes1588–1679L.T. Hobhouse1864–1929Eric HobsbawmLarry Hogan1956–Baron d'Holbach1723–1789Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.1841–1935Richard Hooker1554–1600bell hooks1952–2021Hans-Hermann Hoppe1949–Max Horkheimer1895–1973Scott Horton1976–Branko HorvatMichel Houellebecq1956–Wilhelm von HumboldtDavid Hume1711–1776Hubert HumphreySamuel Huntington1927–2008Francis Hutcheson1694–1746Aldous Huxley1894–1963Elizabeth I1533–1603Ibn Khaldun1332–1406Laura Ingraham1963–Andrew Jackson1767–1845Jesse Jackson1941–2026Jane Jacobs1916–2006Harry JaffaPramila Jayapal1965–Thomas Jefferson1743–1826Hakeem Jeffries1970–Laurene Powell Jobs1963–John of Salisbury1120–1180Pope John Paul II1920–2005Charles JohnsonLyndon B. Johnson1908–1973John Judis1941–Tony JudtRobert Kagan1958–Daniel KahnemanHenry Home, Lord Kames1696–1782Immanuel Kant1724–1804Alex Karp1967–Bill Kauffman1959–Eric Kaufmann1970–Karl Kautsky1854–1938Hans Kelsen1881–1973Stephanie Kelton1969–Ibram X. Kendi1982–George Kennan1904–2005John F. Kennedy1917–1963Robert F. Kennedy Sr.John Maynard Keynes1883–1946Anna Khachiyan1985–Ayatollah Khomeini1902–1989Søren Kierkegaard1813–1855Angus King1944–Martin Luther King Jr.1929–1968Charlie KirkRussell Kirk1918–1994Jeane Kirkpatrick1926–2006Henry Kissinger1923–2023Ezra Klein1984–Naomi Klein1970–Amy Klobuchar1960–Keith KnightCharles Koch1935–Leszek KołakowskiAlexandra Kollontai1872–1952Samuel Edward Konkin IIIIvan KrastevCharles KrauthammerJulius Krein1986–Bill Kristol1952–Irving Kristol1920–2009Peter Kropotkin1842–1921Paul Krugman1953–Robert Kuttner1943–Abraham Kuyper1837–1920Will Kymlicka1962–Étienne de La Boétie1530–1563Julien Offray de La Mettrie1709–1751Ernesto Laclau1935–2014Christine Lagarde1956–Nick Land1962–Rose Wilder Lane1886–1968Oskar LangeChristopher Lasch1932–1994Ferdinand Lassalle1825–1864Ryszard LegutkoGottfried Wilhelm Leibniz1646–1716Vladimir Lenin1870–1924Pope Leo XIII1810–1903Gotthold Ephraim Lessing1729–1781Yuval Levin1977–C.S. Lewis1898–1963Joe LiebermanJohn Lilburne1614–1657Rush Limbaugh1951–2021Abraham Lincoln1809–1865Michael Lind1962–Brink LindseyWalter Lippmann1889–1974Friedrich List1789–1846John Locke1632–1704Loren LomaskyHuey Long1893–1935Roderick Long1964–Joe Lonsdale1982–Audre Lorde1934–1992Domenico LosurdoGlenn Loury1948–Toussaint Louverture1743–1803Palmer Luckey1992–Lucretius99–55 BCGyörgy Lukács1885–1971Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva1945–Patrice Lumumba1925–1961Martin Luther1483–1546Rosa Luxemburg1871–1919Jean-François Lyotard1924–1998Niccolò Machiavelli1469–1527Alasdair MacIntyre1929–2025John Mackey1953–Catharine MacKinnon1946–Emmanuel Macron1977–James Madison1751–1836Maimonides1138–1204Joseph de Maistre1753–1821Nicolas Malebranche1638–1715Michael Malice1976–Thomas Malthus1766–1834Zohran Mamdani1991–Joe Manchin1947–Nelson Mandela1918–2013Marcus AureliusAD 121–180Herbert Marcuse1898–1979Jacques Maritain1882–1973Marsilius of Padua1275–1342Karl Marx1818–1883Thomas Massie1971–Blake Masters1986–Caleb Maupin1988–Peter MaurinCharles Maurras1868–1952Giuseppe Mazzini1805–1872Mariana Mazzucato1968–Megan McArdle1973–Deirdre McCloskey1942–Bill McKibben1960–John Mearsheimer1947–Golda Meir1898–1978Giorgia Meloni1977–Mencius372–289 BCH.L. Mencken1880–1956Carl Menger1840–1921Angela Merkel1954–Klemens von Metternich1773–1859Frank Meyer1909–1972Jean-Claude Michéa1950–Roberto Michels1876–1936Adam Michnik1946–Javier Milei1970–Harvey Milk1930–1978Harriet Taylor Mill1807–1858James Mill1773–1836John Stuart Mill1806–1873John Millar1735–1801Stephen Miller1985–Kate Millett1934–2017C. Wright MillsCzesław MiłoszHo Chi Minh1890–1969Hyman Minsky1919–1996Marvin MinskyLudwig von Mises1881–1973Narendra Modi1950–Albert Mohler1959–Michel de Montaigne1533–1592Charles de Montesquieu1689–1755Max More1964–Thomas More1478–1535Hans Morgenthau1904–1980William Morris1834–1896Gaetano Mosca1858–1941Chantal Mouffe1943–Yascha Mounk1982–Daniel Patrick MoynihanAdam Müller1779–1829Thomas Mun1571–1641Lisa Murkowski1957–Charles Murray1943–Elon Musk1971–Benito Mussolini1883–1945Ralph Nader1934–Angela Nagle1984–Gamal Abdel Nasser1918–1970Jawaharlal Nehru1889–1964Dasha Nekrasova1991–Richard John NeuhausGavin Newsom1967–Nicholas of Cusa1401–1464Reinhold Niebuhr1892–1971Friedrich Nietzsche1844–1900Robert NisbetRichard Nixon1913–1994Kwame Nkrumah1909–1972Albert Jay Nock1870–1945Johan Norberg1973–Novalis1772–1801Alex NowrastehRobert Nozick1938–2002Martha Nussbaum1947–Joseph Nye1937–2025Michael Oakeshott1901–1990Barack Obama1961–Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez1989–William of Ockham1287–1347Henry OlsenMancur Olson1932–1998Viktor Orbán1963–José Ortega y Gasset1883–1955George Orwell1903–1950Elinor Ostrom1933–2012Robert Owen1771–1858Thomas Paine1737–1809William Paley1743–1805Olof Palme1927–1986Vilfredo Pareto1848–1923Rosa Parks1913–2005Blaise Pascal1623–1662Isabel Paterson1886–1961Rand Paul1963–Ron Paul1935–Charles Sanders Peirce1839–1914Nancy Pelosi1940–Marine Le Pen1968–Frances Perkins1880–1965Juan Perón1895–1974Bronze Age Pervert1980–Jordan Peterson1962–Petrarch1304–1374Philip Pettit1945–Paul PicconeGiovanni Pico della Mirandola1463–1494Hasan Piker1991–Thomas Piketty1971–Steven Pinker1954–Augusto Pinochet1915–2006Christine de Pizan1364–1430Plato428–348 BCPlotinusAD 204–270Norman PodhoretzKarl Polanyi1886–1964Michael Polanyi1891–1976Polybius200–118 BCRamesh Ponnuru1974–Karl Popper1902–1994Jack Posobiec1984–Virginia Postrel1960–Pol Pot1925–1998Enoch Powell1912–1998C.K. PrahaladPierre-Joseph Proudhon1809–1865Samuel Pufendorf1632–1694Vladimir Putin1952–Robert Putnam1941–François Quesnay1694–1774Sayyid Qutb1906–1966Justin RaimondoVivek Ramaswamy1985–Ayn Rand1905–1982Walter Rauschenbusch1861–1918John Rawls1921–2002Kate Raworth1970–Joseph Raz1939–2022Ronald Reagan1911–2004Adolph Reed Jr.1947–Robert Reich1946–Thomas Reid1710–1796Ernest Renan1823–1892Rusty Reno1959–David Ricardo1772–1823Sheldon Richman1949–Matt Ridley1958–William Robertson1721–1793Maximilien Robespierre1758–1794Lew Rockwell1944–John RoemerJoe Rogan1967–Oscar RomeroMitt Romney1947–Eleanor Roosevelt1884–1962Franklin D. Roosevelt1882–1945Theodore Roosevelt1858–1919Wilhelm RöpkeRichard Rorty1931–2007Murray Rothbard1926–1995Jean-Jacques Rousseau1712–1778Marco Rubio1971–Christopher Rufo1984–Bertrand Russell1872–1970Bayard Rustin1912–1987Alexander Rüstow1885–1963Samuel Rutherford1600–1661David Sacks1972–Jonathan Sacks1948–2020Carl SaganEdward Said1935–2003Henri de Saint-Simon1760–1825Andrei Sakharov1921–1989Reihan Salam1979–António de Oliveira Salazar1889–1970Frank SalterMatteo Salvini1973–Michael Sandel1953–Bernie Sanders1941–Thomas Sankara1949–1987Jean-Paul Sartre1905–1980Friedrich Carl von Savigny1779–1861Jean-Baptiste Say1767–1832Friedrich Schelling1775–1854Friedrich Schiller1759–1805Phyllis Schlafly1924–2016Friedrich Schlegel1772–1829Friedrich Schleiermacher1768–1834Arthur Schlesinger Jr.Eric Schmidt1955–Carl Schmitt1888–1985Nathan Schneider1984–Arthur Schopenhauer1788–1860E.F. Schumacher1911–1977Joseph Schumpeter1883–1950Klaus Schwab1938–David SchweickartJames C. Scott1936–2024Roger Scruton1944–2020Amartya Sen1933–Seneca4 BC–AD 65Sextus EmpiricusAD 160–210Ben Shapiro1984–Josh Shapiro1973–Michael Shellenberger1971–Judith Shklar1928–1992Henry Sidgwick1838–1900Algernon Sidney1623–1683Julian SimonPeter Singer1946–Quentin Skinner1940–Anne-Marie Slaughter1958–Adam Smith1723–1790Dave Smith1983–Noah SmithTimothy Snyder1969–Robby Soave1988–Socrates470–399 BCAleksandr Solzhenitsyn1918–2008Georges Sorel1847–1922Alexander Soros1985–George Soros1930–Thomas Sowell1930–Herbert Spencer1820–1903Oswald Spengler1880–1936Baruch Spinoza1632–1677Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak1942–Lysander Spooner1808–1887Germaine de Staël1766–1817Joseph Stalin1878–1953Elizabeth Cady Stanton1815–1902Gloria Steinem1934–2026James Fitzjames Stephen1829–1894Dugald Stewart1753–1828George Stigler1911–1991Joseph Stiglitz1943–Max Stirner1806–1856Leo Strauss1899–1973Wolfgang Streeck1946–Francisco Suárez1548–1617Andrew Sullivan1963–Jacob Sullum1965–Larry Summers1954–William Graham Sumner1840–1910Bhaskar Sunkara1989–Cass SunsteinRobert Taft1889–1953Matt Taibbi1970–Nassim Taleb1960–R.H. Tawney1880–1962Charles Taylor1931–William Temple1881–1944Philip Tetlock1954–Margaret Thatcher1925–2013Peter Thiel1967–Derek Thompson1986–E.P. Thompson1924–1993Henry David Thoreau1817–1862Thucydides460–400 BCGreta Thunberg2003–Alexis de Tocqueville1805–1859Leo Tolstoy1828–1910Michael Tracey1988–Heinrich von Treitschke1834–1896Leon Trotsky1879–1940Harry Truman1884–1972Donald Trump1946–Sojourner Truth1797–1883Harriet Tubman1822–1913Benjamin TuckerGordon Tullock1922–2014Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot1727–1781Desmond Tutu1931–2021Batya Ungar-Sargon1981–Lorenzo Valla1407–1457J.D. Vance1984–Jaroslav VanekYanis Varoufakis1961–Thorstein Veblen1857–1929Adrian Vermeule1968–Giambattista Vico1668–1744Peter ViereckFrancisco de Vitoria1483–1546Eric Voegelin1901–1985Voltaire1694–1778Sahra Wagenknecht1969–Lech Wałęsa1943–George Wallace1919–1998Jim Wallis1948–Tim Walz1964–Michael Walzer1935–Wang Huning1955–Elizabeth Warren1949–Josiah Warren1798–1874Booker T. Washington1856–1915George Washington1732–1799Richard Weaver1910–1963Beatrice Webb1858–1943Sidney Webb1859–1947Max Weber1864–1920Simone Weil1909–1943Bari Weiss1984–Ida B. Wells1862–1931Cornel West1953–Gretchen Whitmer1971–Norbert WienerWilliam Wilberforce1759–1833Geert Wilders1963–Will Wilkinson1973–George Will1941–Walter Williams1936–2020Clyde WilsonJames Q. WilsonWoodrow Wilson1856–1924Gerrard Winstanley1609–1676Christian Wolff1679–1754Richard Wolff1942–Sheldon Wolin1922–2015Mary Wollstonecraft1759–1797Tom Woods1972–Natalie Wynn1988–Malcolm X1925–1965Xenophon430–354 BCXi Jinping1953–Xunzi310–235 BCAndrew Yang1975–Curtis Yarvin1973–Janet Yellen1946–Lee Kuan YewMatt Yglesias1981–Iris Marion Young1949–2006Eliezer Yudkowsky1979–Mao Zedong1893–1976Volodymyr Zelensky1978–Clara Zetkin1857–1933Howard ZinnSlavoj Žižek1949–Shoshana Zuboff1951–Huldrych Zwingli1484–1531Matt Zwolinski