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West",-106,-43,"\u002Fimages\u002Ffigures\u002Fwebp\u002Fcicero.webp",{"is_primary":117,"thinkers":132},{"id":133,"era":134,"name":135,"slug":136,"one_line":137,"is_living":117,"birth_year":138,"death_year":139,"portrait_url":140,"sort_priority":141},228,"Reformation","Martin Luther","martin-luther","Martin Luther was the Augustinian monk whose protest against indulgences fractured Western Christendom and whose insistence on conscience over ecclesiastical authority set the terms of political debate for centuries",1483,1546,"\u002Fimages\u002Ffigures\u002Fwebp\u002Fmartin-luther.webp",8,{"is_primary":117,"thinkers":143},{"id":144,"era":145,"name":146,"slug":147,"one_line":148,"is_living":117,"birth_year":149,"death_year":150,"portrait_url":106,"sort_priority":121},1159,"Renaissance","Richard Hooker","richard-hooker","The Elizabethan divine whose Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity defended the English settlement by reason and consent, and whom Locke cites as the judicious Hooker.",1554,1600,{"is_primary":117,"thinkers":152},{"id":153,"era":145,"name":154,"slug":155,"one_line":156,"is_living":117,"birth_year":157,"death_year":158,"portrait_url":106,"sort_priority":121},1156,"Francisco Suárez","francisco-suarez","The last great scholastic, whose account of law as the command of a will, and of political power as arising in the community before it is transferred, reached Grotius and Locke.",1548,1617,{"is_primary":117,"thinkers":160},{"id":161,"era":145,"name":162,"slug":163,"one_line":164,"is_living":117,"birth_year":138,"death_year":139,"portrait_url":106,"sort_priority":121},1155,"Francisco de Vitoria","francisco-de-vitoria","The Salamanca Dominican who denied that discovery, papal grant or unbelief gave Spain title to the Indies, and founded the modern law of nations in the process.",{"is_primary":117,"thinkers":166},{"id":167,"era":145,"name":168,"slug":169,"one_line":170,"is_living":117,"birth_year":171,"death_year":172,"portrait_url":106,"sort_priority":121},1153,"Jean Bodin","jean-bodin","The lawyer who defined sovereignty as absolute and perpetual power over citizens, giving the modern state its central concept in the middle of a civil war.",1530,1596,{"is_primary":117,"thinkers":174},{"id":175,"era":176,"name":177,"slug":178,"one_line":179,"is_living":117,"birth_year":180,"death_year":181,"portrait_url":182,"sort_priority":121},1112,"Medieval","Averroes","averroes","Averroes was the Andalusian philosopher whose commentaries carried Aristotle back into the Latin West, and whose insistence that philosophy and revelation could not contradict each other set the terms of the medieval argument about reason.",1126,1198,"\u002Fimages\u002Ffigures\u002Fwebp\u002Faverroes.webp",{"is_primary":117,"thinkers":184},{"id":185,"era":176,"name":186,"slug":187,"one_line":188,"is_living":117,"birth_year":189,"death_year":190,"portrait_url":191,"sort_priority":121},1114,"Maimonides","maimonides","Maimonides was the Jewish philosopher and jurist whose reconciliation of Aristotle with revealed law became a model for Christian scholasticism, and whose reading shaped Spinoza, Leibniz and the 20th-century revival of political philosophy.",1138,1204,"\u002Fimages\u002Ffigures\u002Fwebp\u002Fmaimonides.webp",{"is_primary":117,"thinkers":193},{"id":194,"era":113,"name":195,"slug":196,"one_line":197,"is_living":117,"birth_year":198,"death_year":199,"portrait_url":200,"sort_priority":201},337,"Marcus Aurelius","marcus-aurelius","Marcus Aurelius was Rome's Stoic philosopher-emperor, ruling the most powerful state in the world while writing a private journal on how to live well — the Meditations, among the most widely read texts in human history",121,180,"\u002Fimages\u002Ffigures\u002Fwebp\u002Fmarcus-aurelius.webp",7,{"is_primary":117,"thinkers":203},{"id":204,"era":134,"name":205,"slug":206,"one_line":207,"is_living":117,"birth_year":208,"death_year":209,"portrait_url":210,"sort_priority":121},127,"John Calvin","john-calvin","John Calvin was the most politically consequential Protestant Reformer, whose theology of resistance, vocation, and godly civil government shaped Puritan England, colonial America, and the modern Protestant world",1509,1564,"\u002Fimages\u002Ffigures\u002Fwebp\u002Fjohn-calvin.webp",{"is_primary":117,"thinkers":212},{"id":213,"era":176,"name":214,"slug":215,"one_line":216,"is_living":117,"birth_year":217,"death_year":218,"portrait_url":219,"sort_priority":121},32,"Thomas Aquinas","thomas-aquinas","Thomas Aquinas was the medieval Dominican friar who synthesized Christian theology with Aristotelian philosophy and built the natural law tradition that still anchors Catholic political thought",1225,1274,"\u002Fimages\u002Ffigures\u002Fwebp\u002Fthomas-aquinas.webp",{"is_primary":117,"thinkers":221},{"id":189,"era":176,"name":222,"slug":223,"one_line":224,"is_living":117,"birth_year":225,"death_year":226,"portrait_url":106,"sort_priority":121},"John Duns Scotus","duns-scotus","The Subtle Doctor, whose insistence that the will is free even from the intellect's judgment opened the road to voluntarism in ethics, theology and law.",1266,1308,{"is_primary":117,"thinkers":228},{"id":229,"era":176,"name":230,"slug":231,"one_line":232,"is_living":117,"birth_year":233,"death_year":234,"portrait_url":106,"sort_priority":121},1136,"Bartolus of Saxoferrato","bartolus-of-saxoferrato","The greatest of the medieval Roman lawyers, who found in an imperial code the legal basis for the independence of city-republics that recognized no emperor.",1313,1357,{"is_primary":117,"thinkers":236},{"id":237,"era":176,"name":238,"slug":239,"one_line":240,"is_living":117,"birth_year":241,"death_year":242,"portrait_url":106,"sort_priority":121},1135,"John of Salisbury","john-of-salisbury","Secretary to Becket and author of the Policraticus, the first full-length work of political theory in the medieval West — and the first to justify killing a tyrant.",1120,1180,[],[245,246,247,249,251,253],{"archetype_slug":38,"shared_thinker_count":121},{"archetype_slug":41,"shared_thinker_count":121},{"archetype_slug":86,"shared_thinker_count":248},4,{"archetype_slug":17,"shared_thinker_count":250},2,{"archetype_slug":59,"shared_thinker_count":252},1,{"archetype_slug":68,"shared_thinker_count":252},[255,263],{"relation_type":256,"strength":257,"description":258,"traditions":259},"descends_from","foundational","Aristotle supplied the teleological groundwork and the Stoics the idea of a law common to all rational beings, transmitted to Rome through Cicero.",{"name":260,"slug":261,"era_marker":262},"Ancient Philosophy","ancient-philosophy","6th century BC to 5th century AD",{"relation_type":256,"strength":257,"description":264,"traditions":265},"Aquinas's treatise on law in the Summa Theologiae is the direct source of the natural-law tradition that Vitoria, Suárez, Grotius and Pufendorf carried into modern jurisprudence.",{"name":266,"slug":267,"era_marker":268},"Scholasticism","scholasticism","12th-15th century",[270,276,283],{"relation_type":256,"strength":257,"description":271,"traditions":272},"Natural law is the framework Catholic social teaching reasons in, from the medieval synthesis through to the modern encyclicals.",{"name":273,"slug":274,"era_marker":275},"Catholic Political Thought","catholic-political-thought","Medieval to present",{"relation_type":256,"strength":277,"description":278,"traditions":279},"significant","Claims about a moral order binding on rulers and prior to statute are the natural-law inheritance within theological politics.",{"name":280,"slug":281,"era_marker":282},"Political Theology","political-theology","Ancient to present",{"relation_type":256,"strength":257,"description":284,"traditions":285},"Grotius and Pufendorf built on the scholastic account even as they detached it from theology — the categories are Aquinas's, the warrant is not.",{"name":286,"slug":287,"era_marker":282},"Natural Law","natural-law"]