[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"archetype-name-map":3,"thinker-marsilius-of-padua":100,"$fFVBVNYlWLlaqm76iHKqoIzp2sc3JMP4OOlFKcpISunM":426},[4,7,10,13,16,19,22,25,28,31,34,37,40,43,46,49,52,55,58,61,64,67,70,73,76,79,82,85,88,91,94,97],{"slug":5,"name":6},"anarcho-capitalist","Anarcho-Capitalist",{"slug":8,"name":9},"establishment-progressive","Establishment Progressive",{"slug":11,"name":12},"progressive-activist","Progressive Activist",{"slug":14,"name":15},"techno-progressive","Techno-Progressive",{"slug":17,"name":18},"patriotic-progressive","Patriotic Progressive",{"slug":20,"name":21},"conservative-democrat","Conservative Democrat",{"slug":23,"name":24},"moderate-conservative","Moderate Conservative",{"slug":26,"name":27},"reform-conservative","Reform Conservative",{"slug":29,"name":30},"religious-conservative","Religious Conservative",{"slug":32,"name":33},"traditionalist","Traditionalist",{"slug":35,"name":36},"national-populist","National Populist",{"slug":38,"name":39},"left-nationalist","Left Nationalist",{"slug":41,"name":42},"moderate-liberal","Moderate Liberal",{"slug":44,"name":45},"pragmatic-centrist","Pragmatic Centrist",{"slug":47,"name":48},"authoritarian-left","Authoritarian Left",{"slug":50,"name":51},"authoritarian-right","Authoritarian Right",{"slug":53,"name":54},"welfare-nationalist","Welfare Nationalist",{"slug":56,"name":57},"democratic-socialist","Democratic Socialist",{"slug":59,"name":60},"christian-socialist","Christian Socialist",{"slug":62,"name":63},"market-socialist","Market Socialist",{"slug":65,"name":66},"trad-socialist","Trad Socialist",{"slug":68,"name":69},"civil-libertarian","Civil Libertarian",{"slug":71,"name":72},"compassionate-libertarian","Compassionate Libertarian",{"slug":74,"name":75},"left-libertarian","Left Libertarian",{"slug":77,"name":78},"traditional-libertarian","Traditional Libertarian",{"slug":80,"name":81},"classical-liberal","Classical Liberal",{"slug":83,"name":84},"social-liberal","Social Liberal",{"slug":86,"name":87},"national-conservative","National Conservative",{"slug":89,"name":90},"neoconservative","Neoconservative",{"slug":92,"name":93},"techno-authoritarian","Techno-Authoritarian",{"slug":95,"name":96},"market-liberal","Market Liberal",{"slug":98,"name":99},"independent-thinker","Independent Thinker",{"thinker":101,"archetypes":113,"traditions":114,"traditionLinks":134,"homeOut":135,"homeIn":141,"works":142,"homeTradition":117,"siblings":155},{"id":102,"slug":103,"name":104,"one_line":105,"bio":106,"birth_year":107,"death_year":108,"nationality":109,"primary_role":110,"era":111,"portrait_url":112,"figure_class":112},1141,"marsilius-of-padua","Marsilius of Padua","Author of the Defensor Pacis, which located all coercive authority in the whole body of citizens and denied the church any coercive power whatever.","Marsilius trained as a physician in Padua, served briefly as rector of the University of Paris, and in 1324 finished a book so dangerous that when his authorship became known two years later he had to flee to the same imperial court that would shelter Ockham. He was excommunicated, and the Defensor Pacis was condemned as heretical in five propositions by John XXII.\n\nThe book's diagnosis is that the one cause of civil discord not identified by Aristotle is the papacy's claim to a jurisdiction alongside the secular one, which makes peace structurally impossible because no community can have two supreme authorities. Its remedy is to deny the claim entirely.\n\nThe positive argument is the more remarkable half. Law, Marsilius holds, is a coercive command, and its authority comes not from its justice but from the will of the body competent to enact it. That body is the legislator humanus: the whole body of citizens, or its weightier part, whose judgement is weightier in respect both of quantity and of quality. Government is the executor of what the legislator enacts, holds office by election, and may be corrected or removed by the same authority that instituted it. This is not democracy in a modern sense — the weightier part does substantial work — but it locates sovereignty in the community with a clarity nobody else in the fourteenth century approached.\n\nThe negative argument follows from the definition of law. If law is coercive command, then divine law, which carries no penalty in this life, is not law in the same sense at all, and the clergy have no coercive power of any kind — no jurisdiction, no property immunity, no power to excommunicate without the legislator's consent. Priests administer sacraments and teach; punishment belongs to the community alone. The church's own structure follows: authority in matters of faith belongs to a general council of clergy and laity summoned by the human legislator, not to the pope, whose primacy is a human arrangement.\n\nMarsilius was read by conciliarists, cited by Cranmer's circle when England broke with Rome, and translated into English in 1535 at Thomas Cromwell's direction. Modern scholarship disputes how far he anticipates popular sovereignty, but nobody disputes that the Defensor Pacis is the most radical political text of the Middle Ages.",1275,1342,"Italian","philosopher","Medieval",null,[],[115,122,128],{"is_primary":116,"traditions":117},false,{"id":118,"name":119,"slug":120,"short_description":121},62,"Political Philosophy","political-philosophy","The intellectual discipline of reflecting systematically on political life, its forms, and its possibilities.",{"is_primary":116,"traditions":123},{"id":124,"name":125,"slug":126,"short_description":127},40,"Republicanism","republicanism","The political tradition that emphasizes self-government, popular sovereignty, and the rule of citizens over themselves rather than rule by kings or aristocrats.",{"is_primary":116,"traditions":129},{"id":130,"name":131,"slug":132,"short_description":133},9,"Social Contract Theory","social-contract-theory","The tradition that grounds political legitimacy in a hypothetical agreement among free individuals about the terms of their common life.",[],[136],{"relation_type":137,"traditions":138},"descends_from",{"name":139,"slug":140},"Ancient Philosophy","ancient-philosophy",[],[143,150],{"title":144,"year":145,"year_display":146,"description":147,"kind":148,"sort_order":149},"Defensor Pacis",1324,"1324","Locates all coercive authority in the whole body of citizens or its weightier part, and denies the clergy any coercive power whatever.","work",1,{"title":151,"year":108,"year_display":152,"description":153,"kind":148,"sort_order":154},"Defensor Minor","c. 1342","A late restatement extending the argument to marriage, jurisdiction and the limits of papal dispensation.",2,[156,160,164,168,172,176,180,184,185,189,193,197,201,205,209,212,216,220,224,228,232,236,240,244,248,252,256,260,264,268,272,276,279,283,287,291,295,299,303,307,311,315,319,323,327,331,335,338,342,346,350,354,358,362,366,370,374,378,382,385,389,392,396,400,404,408,412,416,420,423],{"name":157,"slug":158,"birth_year":159},"Confucius","confucius",-551,{"name":161,"slug":162,"birth_year":163},"Socrates","socrates",-470,{"name":165,"slug":166,"birth_year":167},"Xenophon","xenophon",-430,{"name":169,"slug":170,"birth_year":171},"Marcus Aurelius","marcus-aurelius",121,{"name":173,"slug":174,"birth_year":175},"Al-Farabi","al-farabi",872,{"name":177,"slug":178,"birth_year":179},"John of Salisbury","john-of-salisbury",1120,{"name":181,"slug":182,"birth_year":183},"Dante Alighieri","dante-alighieri",1265,{"name":104,"slug":103,"birth_year":107},{"name":186,"slug":187,"birth_year":188},"William of Ockham","william-of-ockham",1287,{"name":190,"slug":191,"birth_year":192},"Petrarch","petrarch",1304,{"name":194,"slug":195,"birth_year":196},"Leonardo Bruni","leonardo-bruni",1370,{"name":198,"slug":199,"birth_year":200},"Thomas More","thomas-more",1478,{"name":202,"slug":203,"birth_year":204},"Martin Luther","martin-luther",1483,{"name":206,"slug":207,"birth_year":208},"Jean Bodin","jean-bodin",1530,{"name":210,"slug":211,"birth_year":208},"Étienne de La Boétie","etienne-de-la-boetie",{"name":213,"slug":214,"birth_year":215},"Richard Hooker","richard-hooker",1554,{"name":217,"slug":218,"birth_year":219},"Francis Bacon","francis-bacon",1561,{"name":221,"slug":222,"birth_year":223},"Johannes Althusius","johannes-althusius",1563,{"name":225,"slug":226,"birth_year":227},"Robert Filmer","robert-filmer",1588,{"name":229,"slug":230,"birth_year":231},"James Harrington","james-harrington",1611,{"name":233,"slug":234,"birth_year":235},"John Lilburne","john-lilburne",1614,{"name":237,"slug":238,"birth_year":239},"Algernon Sidney","algernon-sidney",1623,{"name":241,"slug":242,"birth_year":243},"Samuel Pufendorf","samuel-pufendorf",1632,{"name":245,"slug":246,"birth_year":247},"Pierre Bayle","pierre-bayle",1647,{"name":249,"slug":250,"birth_year":251},"Giambattista Vico","giambattista-vico",1668,{"name":253,"slug":254,"birth_year":255},"Voltaire","voltaire",1694,{"name":257,"slug":258,"birth_year":259},"Denis Diderot","denis-diderot",1713,{"name":261,"slug":262,"birth_year":263},"William Godwin","william-godwin",1756,{"name":265,"slug":266,"birth_year":267},"Arthur Schopenhauer","arthur-schopenhauer",1788,{"name":269,"slug":270,"birth_year":271},"Thomas Carlyle","thomas-carlyle",1795,{"name":273,"slug":274,"birth_year":275},"Abraham Lincoln","abraham-lincoln",1809,{"name":277,"slug":278,"birth_year":275},"Pierre-Joseph Proudhon","pierre-joseph-proudhon",{"name":280,"slug":281,"birth_year":282},"Herbert Spencer","herbert-spencer",1820,{"name":284,"slug":285,"birth_year":286},"Charles Sanders Peirce","charles-peirce",1839,{"name":288,"slug":289,"birth_year":290},"Georges Sorel","georges-sorel",1847,{"name":292,"slug":293,"birth_year":294},"Eduard Bernstein","eduard-bernstein",1850,{"name":296,"slug":297,"birth_year":298},"Walter Rauschenbusch","walter-rauschenbusch",1861,{"name":300,"slug":301,"birth_year":302},"Mahatma Gandhi","mahatma-gandhi",1869,{"name":304,"slug":305,"birth_year":306},"Vladimir Lenin","vladimir-lenin",1870,{"name":308,"slug":309,"birth_year":310},"Bertrand Russell","bertrand-russell",1872,{"name":312,"slug":313,"birth_year":314},"G.K. Chesterton","g-k-chesterton",1874,{"name":316,"slug":317,"birth_year":318},"Oswald Spengler","oswald-spengler",1880,{"name":320,"slug":321,"birth_year":322},"José Ortega y Gasset","jose-ortega-y-gasset",1883,{"name":324,"slug":325,"birth_year":326},"Walter Lippmann","walter-lippmann",1889,{"name":328,"slug":329,"birth_year":330},"Leo Strauss","leo-strauss",1899,{"name":332,"slug":333,"birth_year":334},"Eric Voegelin","eric-voegelin",1901,{"name":336,"slug":337,"birth_year":334},"Michael Oakeshott","michael-oakeshott",{"name":339,"slug":340,"birth_year":341},"Karl Popper","karl-popper",1902,{"name":343,"slug":344,"birth_year":345},"George Orwell","george-orwell",1903,{"name":347,"slug":348,"birth_year":349},"Raymond Aron","raymond-aron",1905,{"name":351,"slug":352,"birth_year":353},"Hannah Arendt","hannah-arendt",1906,{"name":355,"slug":356,"birth_year":357},"Simone Weil","simone-weil",1909,{"name":359,"slug":360,"birth_year":361},"Albert Camus","albert-camus",1913,{"name":363,"slug":364,"birth_year":365},"Russell Kirk","russell-kirk",1918,{"name":367,"slug":368,"birth_year":369},"Irving Kristol","irving-kristol",1920,{"name":371,"slug":372,"birth_year":373},"John Rawls","john-rawls",1921,{"name":375,"slug":376,"birth_year":377},"Judith Shklar","judith-shklar",1928,{"name":379,"slug":380,"birth_year":381},"Martin Luther King Jr.","martin-luther-king-jr",1929,{"name":383,"slug":384,"birth_year":381},"Alasdair MacIntyre","alasdair-macintyre",{"name":386,"slug":387,"birth_year":388},"Charles Taylor","charles-taylor",1931,{"name":390,"slug":391,"birth_year":388},"Richard Rorty","richard-rorty",{"name":393,"slug":394,"birth_year":395},"Michael Walzer","michael-walzer",1935,{"name":397,"slug":398,"birth_year":399},"Robert Nozick","robert-nozick",1938,{"name":401,"slug":402,"birth_year":403},"Roger Scruton","roger-scruton",1944,{"name":405,"slug":406,"birth_year":407},"Martha Nussbaum","martha-nussbaum",1947,{"name":409,"slug":410,"birth_year":411},"Francis Fukuyama","francis-fukuyama",1952,{"name":413,"slug":414,"birth_year":415},"Michael Sandel","michael-sandel",1953,{"name":417,"slug":418,"birth_year":419},"Jonathan Haidt","jonathan-haidt",1963,{"name":421,"slug":422,"birth_year":112},"G.A. Cohen","ga-cohen",{"name":424,"slug":425,"birth_year":112},"Amy Gutmann","amy-gutmann",{"cards":427,"influenced":434,"shapedBy":441,"outbound":154},[428],{"slug":429,"name":430,"type":431,"strength":432,"description":433},"giles-of-rome","Giles of Rome","opposed","foundational","The Defensor Pacis was written against the hierocratic case De Ecclesiastica Potestate had made at full strength: that no lordship is legitimate except through the church.",[435,438],{"slug":436,"name":437},"jean-gerson","Jean Gerson",{"slug":439,"name":440},"thomas-hobbes","Thomas Hobbes",[]]