[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"archetype-name-map":3,"thinker-al-ghazali":100,"$fc1wGjbEnmk_gujiGEt91RaEGz6snJYPayQ02IWalyaI":180},[4,7,10,13,16,19,22,25,28,31,34,37,40,43,46,49,52,55,58,61,64,67,70,73,76,79,82,85,88,91,94,97],{"slug":5,"name":6},"anarcho-capitalist","Anarcho-Capitalist",{"slug":8,"name":9},"establishment-progressive","Establishment Progressive",{"slug":11,"name":12},"progressive-activist","Progressive Activist",{"slug":14,"name":15},"techno-progressive","Techno-Progressive",{"slug":17,"name":18},"patriotic-progressive","Patriotic Progressive",{"slug":20,"name":21},"conservative-democrat","Conservative Democrat",{"slug":23,"name":24},"moderate-conservative","Moderate Conservative",{"slug":26,"name":27},"reform-conservative","Reform Conservative",{"slug":29,"name":30},"religious-conservative","Religious Conservative",{"slug":32,"name":33},"traditionalist","Traditionalist",{"slug":35,"name":36},"national-populist","National Populist",{"slug":38,"name":39},"left-nationalist","Left Nationalist",{"slug":41,"name":42},"moderate-liberal","Moderate Liberal",{"slug":44,"name":45},"pragmatic-centrist","Pragmatic Centrist",{"slug":47,"name":48},"authoritarian-left","Authoritarian Left",{"slug":50,"name":51},"authoritarian-right","Authoritarian Right",{"slug":53,"name":54},"welfare-nationalist","Welfare Nationalist",{"slug":56,"name":57},"democratic-socialist","Democratic Socialist",{"slug":59,"name":60},"christian-socialist","Christian Socialist",{"slug":62,"name":63},"market-socialist","Market Socialist",{"slug":65,"name":66},"trad-socialist","Trad Socialist",{"slug":68,"name":69},"civil-libertarian","Civil Libertarian",{"slug":71,"name":72},"compassionate-libertarian","Compassionate Libertarian",{"slug":74,"name":75},"left-libertarian","Left Libertarian",{"slug":77,"name":78},"traditional-libertarian","Traditional Libertarian",{"slug":80,"name":81},"classical-liberal","Classical Liberal",{"slug":83,"name":84},"social-liberal","Social Liberal",{"slug":86,"name":87},"national-conservative","National Conservative",{"slug":89,"name":90},"neoconservative","Neoconservative",{"slug":92,"name":93},"techno-authoritarian","Techno-Authoritarian",{"slug":95,"name":96},"market-liberal","Market Liberal",{"slug":98,"name":99},"independent-thinker","Independent Thinker",{"thinker":101,"archetypes":113,"traditions":114,"traditionLinks":134,"homeOut":135,"homeIn":141,"works":142,"homeTradition":117,"siblings":162},{"id":102,"slug":103,"name":104,"one_line":105,"bio":106,"birth_year":107,"death_year":108,"nationality":109,"primary_role":110,"era":111,"portrait_url":112,"figure_class":112},1132,"al-ghazali","Al-Ghazali","The jurist who dismantled the philosophers' claim to demonstrative certainty, provoked Averroes's reply, and reset the relation between reason and revelation in Islam.","Al-Ghazali held the most prestigious teaching post in the Islamic world, at the Nizamiyya in Baghdad, and abandoned it at the age of thirty-seven. He describes the crisis in Deliverance from Error: a collapse of confidence so complete that he could not lecture, followed by eleven years of withdrawal, travel and Sufi practice, and eventually a return to teaching on a different basis. The autobiography is one of the first works of its kind, and its account of doubt — testing sense, then reason, and finding no criterion that certifies either without circularity — is close enough to Descartes's that the parallel has been argued over for centuries, though no line of transmission has ever been established.\n\nHis most consequential book is The Incoherence of the Philosophers, an attack on the system al-Farabi and Avicenna had built. The argument is not that philosophy is forbidden but that it overreaches: on twenty specific questions the philosophers claim demonstrative proof and have none. Three of their conclusions he judges outright incompatible with Islam — the eternity of the world, God's knowledge of particulars only in a general way, and the denial of bodily resurrection. The section that mattered most to later European thought is his treatment of causation. What we call a cause and an effect are two things habitually observed together; the connection between them is not logical, since either is conceivable without the other, and the regularity is the direct act of God rather than a power in the fire to burn. The structure of that argument reappears in Hume, again without a demonstrable route.\n\nAverroes replied with The Incoherence of the Incoherence, and the exchange became the classic confrontation between philosophy and theology in Islam. Both texts were known in the Latin west, where Aquinas engaged the same questions with the same materials.\n\nAl-Ghazali's other achievement is the Revival of the Religious Sciences, a forty-book reconstruction of Islamic practice which made Sufi interiority respectable to the jurists and legalist orthodoxy liveable for the mystics. It is probably the most widely read Islamic book after the Qur'an. The old European claim that he single-handedly closed the door on Islamic philosophy is no longer credible — philosophy continued, particularly in Persia — but the terms on which it continued were the ones he set.",1058,1111,"Persian","theologian","Medieval",null,[],[115,122,128],{"is_primary":116,"traditions":117},false,{"id":118,"name":119,"slug":120,"short_description":121},466,"Islamic Political Thought","islamic-political-thought","The tradition of reasoning about legitimate authority, law and community from Islamic sources — spanning classical jurisprudence, the caliphate debate, and modern Islamism and its critics.",{"is_primary":116,"traditions":123},{"id":124,"name":125,"slug":126,"short_description":127},158,"Political Theology","political-theology","The tradition of reflecting systematically on the relationship between religious concepts and political authority, and on how theological categories underlie ostensibly secular political thought.",{"is_primary":116,"traditions":129},{"id":130,"name":131,"slug":132,"short_description":133},41,"Skepticism","skepticism","The philosophical tradition of doubting whether we can have certain knowledge of the world, the self, or moral truths.",[],[136],{"relation_type":137,"traditions":138},"descends_from",{"name":139,"slug":140},"Ancient Philosophy","ancient-philosophy",[],[143,150,156],{"title":144,"year":145,"year_display":146,"description":147,"kind":148,"sort_order":149},"The Incoherence of the Philosophers",1095,"1095","Twenty questions on which the philosophers claim demonstration and have none, including the treatment of causation as habitual conjunction that prefigures Hume.","work",1,{"title":151,"year":152,"year_display":153,"description":154,"kind":148,"sort_order":155},"The Revival of the Religious Sciences",1105,"c. 1105","Forty books reconstructing Islamic practice, which made Sufi interiority respectable to the jurists and orthodoxy liveable for the mystics.",2,{"title":157,"year":158,"year_display":159,"description":160,"kind":148,"sort_order":161},"Deliverance from Error",1108,"c. 1108","The autobiography of his collapse and recovery, testing sense and then reason and finding no criterion that certifies either without circularity.",3,[163,167,168,172,176],{"name":164,"slug":165,"birth_year":166},"Al-Farabi","al-farabi",872,{"name":104,"slug":103,"birth_year":107},{"name":169,"slug":170,"birth_year":171},"Ayatollah Khomeini","ayatollah-khomeini",1902,{"name":173,"slug":174,"birth_year":175},"Sayyid Qutb","sayyid-qutb",1906,{"name":177,"slug":178,"birth_year":179},"Recep Tayyip Erdoğan","recep-tayyip-erdogan",1954,{"cards":181,"influenced":182,"shapedBy":189,"outbound":190},[],[183,186],{"slug":184,"name":185},"averroes","Averroes",{"slug":187,"name":188},"avicenna","Avicenna",[],0]